Contingency Tables Research Articles

Labour market segmentation and the gender wage gap in Spain

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to analyse the gender wage gap (GWG) in Spain adopting a labour market segmentation approach. Once we obtain the different labour segments (or idiosyncratic labour markets), we are able to decompose the GWG into its observed and unobserved heterogeneity components.Design/methodology/approachWe use the data from the Continuous Sample of Working Lives for the year 2021 (matched employer–employee [EE] data). Contingency tables and clustering techniques are applied to employment data to identify idiosyncratic labour markets where men and/or women of different ages tend to match/associate with different sectors of activity and occupation groups. Once this “heatmap” of labour associations is known, we can analyse its hottest areas (the idiosyncratic labour markets) from the perspective of wage discrimination by gender (Oaxaca-Blinder model).FindingsIn Spain, in general, men are paid more than women, and this is not always justified by their respective attributes. Among our results, the fact stands out that women tend to move to those idiosyncratic markets (biclusters) where the GWG (in favour of men) is smaller.Research limitations/implicationsIt has not been possible to obtain remuneration data by job-placement, but an annual EE relationship is used. Future research should attempt to analyse the GWG across the wage distribution in the different idiosyncratic markets.Practical implicationsOur combination of methodologies can be adapted to other economies and variables and provides detailed information on the labour-matching process and gender wage discrimination in segmented labour markets.Social implicationsOur contribution is very important for labour market policies, trying to reduce unfair inequalities.Originality/valueThe study of the GWG from a novel labour segmentation perspective can be interesting for other researchers, institutions and policy makers.

Industry sector’s influence on the narratives in environmental disclosures in the opinion of reports preparers. Evidence from Poland

The narrative phenomenon in accounting concerns, i.e., the disclosure of environmental information and the impression management of stakeholders. The study examines and assesses the dependence between the company’s industry of activity and the narration perception adopted by the preparers of environmental reports, in particular, the impression management techniques used. To achieve the purpose of the article, an in-depth survey was conducted covering a non-random sample of the employees of Polish enterprises involved in the preparation and reporting of environmental information. Contingency tables and association measures for categorical variables were used in the statistical analysis of the survey data. The analysis results of the collected empirical data confirmed that the company’s industry of activity impacts the way report preparers evaluate the scope and apply narrative strategies, especially impression management techniques. The research expands knowledge on the perception of the importance of environmental disclosures and the issue of environmental narrative practices from an enterprise perspective. The results of the analysis indicated a level of pro-environmental awareness and confirmed the knowledge of narrative strategies and techniques. This study contributes to the discussion on the effects of environmental narrative in accounting, offering yet another element of the current practice diagnosis in this area in Poland.

Variations in the coherence and engagement in students’ experience of blended learning

We report a study which examines coherence of engagement of 344 first year engineering students’ blended learning experience. Using self-report and observational data sources, we demonstrate that student perceptions of the blended learning environment, academic learning outcomes, and engagement with the online learning activities are logically related at the variable level as shown by correlation analyses; and at the level of student groupings of similar learning experience and behaviors, as revealed by cluster, ANOVA, and 2 x 2 contingency analyses. Using self-report data, we found that when students perceived the learning activities in the f2f and online environments were integrated, they were more likely to be engaged with the online learning and to perform relatively higher on the assessment tasks than students who perceived disintegration between f2f and online learning. Using the observational data, students who were more engaged with the online learning tended to perceive that the online learning was well integrated with the f2f learning, that the online contributions were valuable for the whole learning experience, and achieved relatively higher than less engaged students. A 2 x 2 contingency table revealed a logical relationship between the groupings of students based on the selfreport and observational data: moderate and positive association was found between students with coherent perceptions and more engagement; and between students with fragmented perceptions and less engagement. The use of multiple data sources and methods enabled triangulation, strengthened analysis power, and offered a more comprehensive picture of students’ blended learning experience.

Recruiting the next generation of project managers: Student interests, industry needs, and marketing messages

Businesses need well-trained project managers but recruiting students to this field is a challenge. This three-part study examines motivational factors that influence students to pursue a project management degree, industry requirements for project management careers, and graduate program marketing messages. The purpose of the study is to determine the degree of alignment among these three variables and make recommendations for graduate program marketing stakeholders and industry leaders to improve recruitment strategies for these programs. Study 1 seeks to understand prospective student opinions and trigger factors when applying to a graduate program using a survey with regression and cross tabulation statistical analysis. Study 2 analyzes the relationship between project management certifications and work experience and salary using regression analysis. Study 3 is a content analysis that examines how graduate programs market their project management programs to prospective students. Study findings indicate industry leaders and higher education stakeholders need to use informational marketing campaigns to bridge the knowledge gap between market demand and student perceptions. Higher education leaders need to design curriculum that includes industry certifications and practical skill courses if they want to increase enrollment and career placement for project management students.

Assessing concordance between Campylobacter prevalence in broilers and human cases before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Lower Saxony, Germany, considering fresh chicken meat consumption patterns

As the most common foodborne disease, number of campylobacteriosis decreased in Germany with the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. As the consumption of fresh chicken meat is a major risk factor for human infection, this study investigated the relationship between Campylobacter contamination levels on chicken carcasses and human cases in Lower Saxony, Germany and observed fresh chicken meat consumption patterns between 2018 and 2021 including the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. Campylobacter levels in broilers and human cases were classified based on the median and descriptively analysed per week using contingency tables. Before the COVID-19 pandemic (2018 and 2019), high Campylobacter contamination levels on neck samples and many human cases were more present, whereas with the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic (2020 and 2021), low contamination levels on chicken carcasses and few human cases were more present. Lowest concordance between both parameters was shown in 2018 (Cohen’s cappa coefficient: 0.37) and 2020 (0.38). The highest concordance was examined in 2021 (0.69). The private consumption of fresh chicken meat in Lower Saxony increased significantly with the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 by 63.9 tonnes compared to 2019 to an average of 453.5 tonnes per week. Public health measures and a reduced number of medical treatments have undoubtedly had an impact on less reported human cases during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, number of human cases remained at a low level in Germany in 2023 while chicken meat consumption increased. Thus, further risk assessments regarding the risk of campyloabcteriosis due to chicken meat consumption should include the country of origin, as the level of contamination of chicken carcasses varies between European countries.

How to evaluate perfusion imaging in post-treatment glioma: a comparison of three different analysis methods.

Dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) perfusion weighted (PW)-MRI can aid in differentiating treatment related abnormalities (TRA) from tumor progression (TP) in post-treatment glioma patients. Common methods, like the 'hot spot', or visual approach suffer from oversimplification and subjectivity. Using perfusion of the complete lesion potentially offers an objective and accurate alternative. This study aims to compare the diagnostic value and assess the subjectivity of these techniques. 50 Glioma patients with enhancing lesions post-surgery and chemo-radiotherapy were retrospectively included. Outcome was determined by clinical/radiological follow-up or biopsy. Imaging analysis used the 'hot spot', volume of interest (VOI) and visual approach. Diagnostic accuracy was compared using receiving operator characteristics (ROC) curves for the VOI and 'hot spot' approach, visual assessment was analysed with contingency tables. Inter-operator agreement was determined with Cohens kappa and intra-class coefficient (ICC). 29 Patients suffered from TP, 21 had TRA. The visual assessment showed poor to substantial inter-operator agreement (κ = -0.72 - 0.68). Reliability of the 'hot spot' placement was excellent (ICC = 0.89), while reference placement was variable (ICC = 0.54). The area under the ROC (AUROC) of the mean- and maximum relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) (VOI-analysis) were 0.82 and 0.72, while the rCBV-ratio ('hot spot' analysis) was 0.69. The VOI-analysis had a more balanced sensitivity and specificity compared to visual assessment. VOI analysis of DSC PW-MRI data holds greater diagnostic accuracy in single-moment differentiation of TP and TRA than 'hot spot' or visual analysis. This study underlines the subjectivity of visual placement and assessment.

Online food delivery services: cross-sectional study of consumers’ attitude in Malaysia during and after the COVID-19 pandemic

Background During the COVID-19 pandemic, Malaysian consumers were more likely to purchase food online and have it delivered to their doorstep. To stay afloat, many restaurants were pushed to provide online food delivery services (OFDS), and this sector has grown tremendously. However, will the trend persist after the pandemic? This study aims to look into how consumers’ perceptions of OFDS affect their attitude towards them. It investigates the relationship between convenience motivation, perceived ease of use, time-saving orientation and price-saving orientation in terms of future intent to use OFDS. Method Primary data was collected from 307 respondents in Malaysia using convenience sampling method through an online survey. Respondents’ demographic background was presented statistically in cross tabulation tables to study the ratio comparison implicitly. Consistent Partial Least Square approach and bootstrapping techniques with 5,000 subsamples was employed, with the aid of SmartPLS.V3 software, to identify the significant factors influencing consumers’ continuance intention after the pandemic. Result Perceived ease of use does not contribute significantly to continuance intention as most consumers have prior online purchase experience. Nevertheless, time-saving orientation has a positive correlation with perceived ease of use due to the simplicity of placing an order with just a click. It is also found that price-saving orientation is related to convenience motivation, particularly when prices can be compared on the websites or online ordering platforms. Consumers’ intention to continue using OFDS even after the COVID-19 pandemic is positively influenced by all the parameters studied, except for perceived ease of use. Conclusion Limited work has been done on the continuance intention to use OFDS beyond the pandemic. This study provides insight for food retailers on how to enhance their business and retain their customers with the support of technology, even after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Customer Satisfaction towards Online Shopping with reference to Ujjain City

A fundamental understanding of factors causing customer satisfaction in online shopping has gained greater prominence with companies replacing their traditional retail outlets with the online interface. Online retailing helps retailers to serve their customers quickly and more efficiently by delivering superior customer value. It is in this regard a fundamental understanding of factors causing customer satisfaction in online shopping has attained greater prominence. The paper aims to apply the modified SERVQUAL model in the context of online shopping to describe how customers perceive online shopping quality. This empirical study mainly focuses on examining the major factors influencing online customer satisfaction. A survey research questionnaire of 24 items has been applied and the data of 200 respondents were collected from customers using online shopping service in Ujain city. A convenient sampling technique was used for selecting the respondents. Statistical tools such as factor analysis cross tabulation and frequency tables were applied to interpret the data. To achieve the objective reliability test was conducted. The reliability analysis shows that all dimensions are reliable. First, the study identified Ease of use, service reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and security are the major determinants of customer satisfaction with reference to online Shopping. The study primarily focuses on exploring the factors that influence online customer’s satisfaction. The study not also helps in assessing the significance of these factors in the context of online shopping but also provides an insight for retailers on the factors affecting customer satisfaction. Keywords – prominence, Online retailing, convenient sampling technique, reliability analysis, assessing.

Performance of modified colistin broth disc elution vis-a-vis broth microdilution method for susceptibility testing of Enterobacterales

Objectives: Recently, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) has approved colistin broth disc elution (CBDE) to be a supplemental test. This requires multiple discs and tubes to get the desired concentrations of colistin -1, 2, and 4 µg/mL and 10 mL volume of cation-adjusted Mueller–Hinton broth for a single isolate. The present study was aimed to evaluate the performance of CBDE in a microtiter plate format modified (mCBDE) with the reference method broth microdilution (BMD) for detection of colistin resistance in carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) isolates. Materials and Methods: One hundred and sixty non-duplicate clinical CRE isolates (May 2021–April 2022) were simultaneously subjected for BMD and mCBDE. For mCBDE, colistin 10 µg discs and Mueller–Hinton broth no-2 control cations were procured from HiMedia, Mumbai, and drug concentrations were prepared following CLSI-M100Ed31. Results of mCBDE were compared with reference BMD (Minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] ≤2 µg/mL – intermediate and ≥4 µg/mL – resistant). Statistical Analysis: The performance of mCBDE was compared with BMD and expressed in terms of Categorical, essential agreement (EA), very major error (VME), and major error (ME). The sensitivity and specificity were calculated using Fisher’s contingency Table. Results: Of the 160 CRE isolates, 152 had exactly the same minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) in both the tests with four isolates having higher and four having lower colistin MIC by mCBDE, giving a major error of 2.1% and VME of 5.5%. Categorical and essential agreement of mCBDE were 97.5% and 98.7%, respectively. Conclusions: mCBDE is an easy, economical, and reliable alternative test for determining colistin susceptibility for CRE isolates. Further, large-scale study is needed to strengthen our observation.

University Students’ Perception of the Dehesa and the Associated Traditional Trades

The dehesas are one of the most emblematic landscapes of the Extremadura region (Spain). Along with its natural values, it preserves a wide repertoire of knowledge and trades rooted in the history and tradition of rural communities. However, the knowledge and practices that have characterized life in this environment are currently under serious threat. Faced with this problem, this study was based on the premise that, for individuals to commit themselves to the care and transmission of heritage, it is first necessary for them to know, understand and value it. For this reason, the main objective was to determine the knowledge and appreciation of university students with respect to the dehesa and the ancestral practice of grazing. It also aimed to analyze which are the most valued methodologies, activities, and future strategies for understanding and preserving these cultural landscapes and their ancestral practices. To this end, 400 university students were surveyed, and various quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out. Quantitative techniques include analyses based on weighted averages, contingency tables and the chi-square test, while qualitative techniques are based on word frequency analysis and inductive content analysis. Despite coming from an environment dominated by this landscape and being one of the few regions that still preserve the ancestral practice of pastoralism, the results corroborated the students’ lack of understanding of the dehesa and the variety of uses it offers. In addition, it was evident that they have hardly frequented this landscape and have not participated in on-site educational experiences. It also revealed the importance of experiential and sensory activities in the understanding and appreciation of the rural environment and its traditions. The results can be useful for improving the design of educational tourism products based on intangible heritage. It can also be useful for adapting teaching strategies and activities to the level of knowledge and experiences of students, helping to ensure the success of the educational experience.

Abstract PO3-13-05: PD-L1 and PD-L2 Protein Expression is Frequently Discordant in Breast Cancer

Abstract Background: In neoadjuvant setting, PD-1 inhibitors have shown significantly higher pathological responses in patients (pts) with early-stage triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) irrespective of PD-L1 status. However, durable responses are less common in estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) pts. Most breast cancer (BC) clinical trials of PD-1 inhibitors have thus far focused on PD-L1 expression for patient eligibility. The alternative PD-1 ligand, PD-L2, with reported ~4-fold greater affinity for PD-1, has been largely understudied. We recently reported that high cancer cell protein levels of PD-L2 in pts with treatment-naïve ER+ BC was an independent predictor of shorter progression-free survival. PD-L2 expression was significantly high in ER- group as well, however, given the low numbers of ER- pts, the study was not powered enough to determine the correlation of PD-L2 with PFS in the ER- subgroup. These findings suggest that PD-L2 has an important role in BC and combined PD-L1/PD-L2 status may help improve BC pt selection for PD-1 inhibitors. We therefore initiated efforts to determine baseline expression patterns of PD-L1 and PD-L2 in BC. Methods: PD-L1 and PD-L2 protein levels in cancer cells and tumor-infiltrating immune cells were prospectively analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) using validated antibodies in diagnostic core biopsies of 31 consecutive pts diagnosed with localized or locoregional ER+/HER2- BC or TNBC. Percent positivity of PD-L1 and PD-L2 in cancer cells and immune cells was determined by our breast pathologist. Detectable PD-L1 or PD-L2 expression in ≥1% of cancer cells or stromal immune cells was considered positive. Spearman correlation and Wilcoxon paired analyses were used to measure and correlate PD-L1 and PD-L2 protein expression in cancer and immune cells. Results: There was no significant correlation between PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression, neither across all cases (N=31), nor within ER+ (N=22) or TNBC (N=9) cases. However, PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression patterns in BC differed in several ways. PD-L1-positivity in immune cells was higher than in cancer cells (median=5.0% vs. 0.0%; p=0.001), whereas PD-L2-positivity was higher in cancer cells than in immune cells (median=30% vs. 5.0%; p< 0.001). PD-L1 positivity in cancer cells and immune cells were positively correlated in TNBC (rho=0.69, p=0.04) but not in ER+ BC. Conversely, PD-L2 positivity in cancer cells and immune cells were positively correlated in ER+ BC (rho=0.68, p=0.001) but not in TNBC. TNBC diverged from ER+ BC by displaying higher PD-L1 positivity in immune cells (median=20.0% vs. 1.0%; p=0.004). By the conventional cut point for positivity of ≥1% for PD-L1 and PD-L2 in cancer cells or immune cells, all TNBC tumors were PD-L1-positive (9/9), with 8 also being PD-L2-positive. Of the 22 ER+ cases, 16 were PD-L2-positive, of which only 9 were also PD-L1-positive. Table 1. shows cross tabulation data for PD-L1 and PD-L2 status by BC subtype. Conclusions: PD-L1 and PD-L2 proteins show divergent expression and are not correlated in BC. Discordant PD-L2 and PD-L1 expression may be more common in ER+ BC than in TNBC. This finding justifies efforts to explore PD-L2 as a complementary marker to PD-L1 for improved prediction of response to PD-1 inhibitors, which may benefit patients with aggressive ER+ BC that are eligible for chemotherapy. Table 1. PD-L1 vs. PD-L2 Status by Breast Cancer Subtype Citation Format: Lubna Chaudhary, Julie Jorns, Yunguang Sun, Sailaja Kamaraju, Yee Chung Cheng, Amanda Kong, Tina Yen, Caitlin Patten, Chandler Cortina, Inna Chervoneva, Christopher Chitambar, Hallgeir Rui. PD-L1 and PD-L2 Protein Expression is Frequently Discordant in Breast Cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2023 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2023 Dec 5-9; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(9 Suppl):Abstract nr PO3-13-05.

The Relationship between Knowledge and Length of Work with the Preparedness of Health Workers Facing Flood Disasters at Community Health Centers

Flood Disaster is an event or situation where an area or land is submerged due to the increasing volume of water, flood disasters often occur in Bengkulu City, so this research aims to study the relationship between knowledge and length of work with the preparedness of health workers in facing flood disasters in community health centers. This research uses an Analytical Survey approach with a cross sectional design. The population of all health workers at the Nusa Indah Community Health Center, Bengkulu City in 2023. A sample of 39 people was taken by accidental sampling. Data collection uses secondary and primary data. Data analysis using the Chi-Square test (X2) and Contingency Coefficient Test (C). The research results obtained; Of the 39 people there are 14 people who are less prepared and 25 people who are ready. Of the 39 Health Workers there are 10 Health Workers who have sufficient knowledge and 29 Health Workers whose knowledge is good. Of the 39 people there are 20 people who have worked for <10 years and 19 people >10 years, there is a relationship between knowledge and preparedness which is categorized as close, there is a relationship between length of work and the preparedness of officers in facing floods which is categorized as moderate.  

Use of locums in the Regular GP Scheme 2016-22.

Under the Regular GP Scheme, locum GPs must be used when GPs are absent or when a patient list has no GP. We have studied the prevalence and development of locum contracts registered in the Regular GP Scheme in the period from 1January 2016 to 31December 2022. In this descriptive registry study, we categorised 21418 locum contracts from the period 1January 2016 to 31December 2022 according to municipality and duration. We divided the municipalities into groups according to Statistics Norway's six centrality classes. Classes 1‒2 are central; 3‒4 are less central; and 5‒6 are the least central municipalities. The analysis is based on frequency tables, contingency tables and rates. In the period studied, the number of registered locum contracts increased in Norway from 916 to 5003 (446%). The increase was largest in centrality group 5‒6. The average duration of the locum positions was 195 days in centrality groups 1‒2 (95% confidence interval (CI) 190‒200), 130 days in centrality groups 3‒4 (95% CI 127‒134) and 67 days in centrality groups 5‒6 (95% CI 64‒69). Centrality groups 5‒6 had twice as many locum contracts for full-time positions compared to centrality groups 1‒2, where part-time positions were more common. Locum contracts per list without a GP increased nationally from 0.5 to 4.7 in the study period. The GP Registry provides increasingly useful, nationwide information on the use of locum GPs. Use of locums in the Regular GP Scheme has increased significantly since 2016, and this may represent a challenge to equal access to health services. Future research should examine the causes and consequences of increased use of locum GPs.

Gender-age peculiarities of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in tuberculosis in a high-density region: a retrospective cohort study

Background. Infections associated with socially significant diseases considerably contribute to a decrease in the quality of public health. Tuberculosis, though declining in Russia, is still recognized as a pressing public health problem. Meanwhile, an assessment of the burden of tuberculosis on society, using such comprehensive methods as measuring disability-adjusted life years, is yet to be investigated in Russia. Objective. To estimate the tuberculosis burden by calculating the index of disability adjusted life years in a high-density region.Methods. The retrospective cohort study involved data on newly-diagnosed and died of tuberculosis cases that corresponded to the annual reporting form of federal statistical surveillance No. 8 “Information on active tuberculosis cases” for the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania; information on patients who died of tuberculosis or tuberculosis combined with infection caused by human immunodeficiency virus, was obtained from the Department of Civil Status Records of the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania and verified with data from the Federal State Statistics Service; data on tuberculosis-associated disability was received from Main Bureau of Medical and Social Expertise in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Russian Federation for 2018 and 2022. Following the analytic dataset, 691 people with newly-diagnosed tuberculosis, who received TB-associated disability and died from TB in 2018 (318 people) and 2022 (373 people) were identified. The study involved calculation of gender and age standardized TB morbidity and mortality rates as well as DALY index with its components: Years of Life Lost due to tuberculosis and Years Lost due to Disability. The study involved comparing data between 2018 and 2022 and gender/age-specific indicators within the same year. Mathematical data processing was performed using Microsoft Excel 2017 (Microsoft Corporation, USA) and SPSS 26.0 (SPSS Inc., USA). Differences between the compared indicators were evaluated by Chi-square criterion with variations, the initial data were grouped in a contingency table, the significance of differences was expressed by p-value.Results. The burden of tuberculosis in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania refers predominantly to the male population: with a gender difference in the decrease in the disability-adjusted life years in 2018 and 2022 by 4.4 and 9.0 times (p < 0.05), respectively; 2.8 times among males, 5.5 times among females (p < 0.05). The burden of tuberculosis is mainly associated with premature mortality due to tuberculosis among males aged 35–54 years and among females aged 35–44 years with a pronounced decrease in Years of Life Lost. Years of Life Lost among males aged 20–34 in 2022 appears two times higher than the cohort average. The increase in Years of Life Lost among males aged 60–64 accounted for 1.7 times, in Years Lost Due to Disability — 11.2 times (p < 0.05). Years Lost Due to Disability among females aged 20–44 years appeared to be the highest, exceeding the cohort average by more than two times in 2018.Conclusion. The burden of tuberculosis is predominantly due to tuberculosis-related premature mortality among the male population. According to the disturbing conclusion, Years of Life Lost among young males aged 20–34 years and tuberculosis-related premature mortality shift towards the male population of pre-retirement age (60–64 years) with an increase in Years Lost Due to Disability among them. Notably, the study reveals high rates of Years Lost Due to Disability among females aged 20–44. The results obtained should be taken into account when developing regional tuberculosis programs with their targeted use in “vulnerable” age and gender groups of the population.

Likelihood Ratio Test and the Evidential Approach for 2 × 2 Tables

Categorical data analysis of 2 × 2 contingency tables is extremely common, not least because they provide risk difference, risk ratio, odds ratio, and log odds statistics in medical research. A χ2 test analysis is most often used, although some researchers use likelihood ratio test (LRT) analysis. Does it matter which test is used? A review of the literature, examination of the theoretical foundations, and analyses of simulations and empirical data are used by this paper to argue that only the LRT should be used when we are interested in testing whether the binomial proportions are equal. This so-called test of independence is by far the most popular, meaning the χ2 test is widely misused. By contrast, the χ2 test should be reserved for where the data appear to match too closely a particular hypothesis (e.g., the null hypothesis), where the variance is of interest, and is less than expected. Low variance can be of interest in various scenarios, particularly in investigations of data integrity. Finally, it is argued that the evidential approach provides a consistent and coherent method that avoids the difficulties posed by significance testing. The approach facilitates the calculation of appropriate log likelihood ratios to suit our research aims, whether this is to test the proportions or to test the variance. The conclusions from this paper apply to larger contingency tables, including multi-way tables.

Detecting Bias in Traffic Searches: Examining False Searches of Innocent Drivers

Abstract Purpose We test current models of racial bias in policing, identify limitations, and propose a test of racial bias, that does not depend on unknown population contraband rate. Methods We conceptualize police officer search decisions as a 2 (search/no search) by 2 (contraband present/absent) table, with missing data (if the police did not search, the presence of contraband is unknown). We constrain the feasible problem space using properties of a 2 x 2 contingency table. Then we examine all possible feasible 2 x 2 tables to identify instances of racial differences in police officer hit and false alarm rates. To do this, we develop a new test of racial bias, the Overlapping Condition Test. We analyze state and county data across 25 United States police departments. Results These departments have an observable racial difference in false alarm rate regardless of the true value of missing data (under every feasible 2 x 2 table there is a racial difference). This effect is found in 10 out of 14 state police departments and 9 out of 11 local departments across the United States. That is, for every feasible real world scenario police officers have lower false alarm rates for White drivers than Black drivers. Conclusion We interpret this difference in false alarm rate as a threshold bias. That is, officers use different criteria for searching Black drivers than White drivers and this conclusion is not qualified by the unknown contraband rate. Future directions should explore how police officers make the decision to search drivers and develop interventions to address the racial bias in search rate.

Equity, diversity and inclusion in neurosurgery: results of the SBNS engagement survey

INTRODUCTION Bullying, undermining and harassment (BUH) as well as discrimination have shown to be present throughout the National Health Service, especially in surgery. The Society of British Neurological Surgeons (SBNS) created its equity, diversity and inclusion (EDI) group to investigate the demographics of UK and Irish neurosurgeons, along with their experiences of BUH. METHODS A 31-item electronic survey was distributed through the national society email list for all neurosurgeons throughout the UK and Ireland in spring 2022. Descriptive statistics were used to present the results, along with 2x2 chi-squared contingency tables, with a p-value of <0.05 deemed statistically significant. RESULTS There were 175 respondents (approximately 18% of neurosurgeons in the UK and Ireland). Two-thirds (67%) were consultants and a quarter (23%) were women. Almost half (44%) were White British/Irish. A third (30%) went to university outside the UK/Ireland although most (82%) completed neurosurgical training in the UK or Ireland. Thirty-eight per cent said they did not have a primary caregiver or parental role. Two-thirds (65%) of respondents stated that they had been a victim of BUH, with 70% having witnessed BUH. Being female was the only demographic category with a significantly increased likelihood of experiencing BUH. A quarter (23%) of respondents felt uncomfortable about being open about themselves in the workplace and 39% had perceived a barrier to career progression due to a particular characteristic. CONCLUSIONS BUH and barriers to feeling comfortable in the workplace/career progression are problems in UK/Irish neurosurgery. Further work will be undertaken by the SBNS EDI working group to better understand the demographics of its community, to spread awareness of the issues, and to improve the experiences of neurosurgeons in the UK and Ireland.

Factors affecting on Container Inventory Management (CIM): Evidence from Container depots in Sri Lanka

Container inventory and management (CIM) is an integral part of running a successful container logistics operation, allowing for best-in-class container utilization and low-cost operations. Ineffective container inventory management has become a fairly widespread concern in the shipping industry. carrier's extensive fleet is essentially useless if it is not managed effectively and efficiently. The container inventory can be managed effectively to maintain a smooth balance between supply and demand while reducing potential extra expenses by adhering to efficient and effective procedures. This paper proposes some factors affecting to container inventory management [CIM] in Container depots in Sri Lanka. Accordingly, a target population of 384 senior employees in the field are followed by a questionnaire survey have been carried out and data were analyzed mainly using Chi-Square test. Researcher believes that responses received by employees whom with experience more than 10 years can highly influence on the output of the study based on judgmental sampling method.Data analysis, reliability analysis, demographic factor analysis, descriptive statistical analysis, cross tabulation analysis, and correlation analysis. Chi-square testing and multiple regression analyses were used. With the expertise point of view, this study would lead to understand the factors influence on CIM. After clear analysis, the study concluded four factors namely, demand and supply of containers, high shipping rates, imports and exports trends and cargo seasonality have an influence on the container inventory management. It’s acceptable that no any party can completely avoid such consequences, but the researcher believes that with proper identification and planning accordingly, this ineffectiveness of container inventory management can be lessened or controlled. With no doubt, taking proactive measures will positively impact on container industry of Sri Lanka as well as the economy of the country.

Cross-cutting exposure to the Spanish public broadcasting system: influence of ideology, partisanship, and interest in politics on RTVE’s consumption

According to the selective exposure hypothesis, media consumption is determined by the ideological predispositions of individuals, who aim to confirm their opinions through media content. This research explores the role of the public state-owned radio and television corporation, Radio Televisión Española (RTVE), as a facilitator of transversal exposure, that is, consumption that is not aligned with individuals’ prior convictions. Through a quantitative methodology based on contingency tables and the calculation of corrected typed residuals, and through the CIS post-electoral studies, we analyse the relevance of ideology, partisan identification and interest in public issues as predictors of public television and radio consumption over a period of 11 years (2008-2019) in Spain. The results indicate that being a voter of the party in government and sharing its ideology are related to a higher likelihood of consuming RTVE television channels. In addition, the results show a higher transversal exposure of public radio, compared to television, which is more strongly influenced by the ideology and partisanship of the audiences.

TYPOLOGIES OF LAND USE AND LAND COVER ASSOCIATED WITH CASES OF CUTANEOUS LEISHMANIASIS IN A METROPOLITAN REGION IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON

Characterizing the probable site of infection of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in face of anthropic changes in the Amazon makes it possible to understand the distribution of this disease in order to adopt control measures. The objective of this study is to identify landscape typologies resulting from changes in land use and land cover in the Metropolitan Region of Santarém regarding the occurrence of CL cases in 2012 and 2014. Landscape typologies were developed from TerraClass project data using regular 1 km² cells. Landscape presence and dominance metrics were used to generate cells with a single class and cells with more than one class, called mosaics. For cases of leishmaniasis, the metric was the presence of the disease. Association analyses were extracted from a 2x2 contingency table. The primary forest typology (PP04) had the highest number of cells in both years analyzed. However, changes in land use and land cover were evidenced by the growth in the number of cells with mosaics of agriculture (PP11 and PP12), urbanized areas (PP03 and PP10), and pastures (PP13). The presence of at least one case of CL in each year occurred in ten typologies, particularly in compositions with urbanized areas, pastures, and secondary vegetation. Typologies with the agriculture class, although the number of cells increased, did not follow the same growth logic regarding the presence of the disease. This study makes it possible to identify and characterize the places where CL occurs and provides further information for health surveillance agencies